CARBOHYDRATES

The main source of carbohydrate calories for men. Although the number of calories produced only 4 calories 1 gram of carbohydrates, but when compared to proteins and fats, calories, carbohydrates are the source of more readily available. Besides, some groups contain fiber carbohydrates (dietary fiber) are useful for digestion. Carbohydrates are energy sources for all individuals. Karbohidra easily obtained and almost all foods contain carbohydrates.

A. CARBOHYDRATES CLASSIFICATION
Based on the chemical composition of carbohydrates, the carbohydrates into three, namely:
1) Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides classified as the most simple carbohydrates and is the smallest molecule of carbohydrate. Monosaccharides can be directly absorbed by the body through the intestinal wall and into the bloodstream. Formation of monosaccharides in the body is formed from two kinds of solutions other sakarida.

There are 3 kinds of monosaccharides, namely:

(a) Glucose
Collectively, the dektrosa. This nutrient is found in many fruits and vegetables. All types of carbohydrates in the body will be converted into glucose.

(b) Fructose
Are also called levulose. These substances along with the glucose found in fruits, especially that contained in the honey gives a distinctive sweet taste of honey.

(c) Galactose
Galactose is the solution of the disaccharide, often also referred to as milk sugar because it is produced from cow's milk or breast milk.

2) Disaccharides
Disaccharide is a merger of the two kinds of monosaccharide molecules. Solution occurs in the body with the help of enzymes. Disaccharide is important in materials food is:

(a) Sucrose
In the process of digestion, sucrose is broken down into glucose and fructose. Sucrose is present in many cane sugar and palm sugar.

(b) Maltose
Maltose is the result of substance starch solution. Maltose be split back into two molecules of glucose. There is the wheat that is growing (sprouts).

(c) Lactose
These many types of carbohydrates present in milk. In the body is difficult to digest lactose compared with sucrose and maltose. Difficulty in digesting lactose in the body, in some people can cause health effects. Occurrence of diarrhea after consuming lactose is one of the effects. Lactose intolerance is a condition where a person can not digest lactose in intestinum tenue. People who suffer from lactose intolerance can not consume milk with a high lactose content. Levels of lactose in cow's milk between 4 - 5%, whereas in human milk between 6 -7%. Lactose in the digestive tract will be split back into glucose and 1 molecule 1 molecule galactose.

3) Polysaccharides
Polysaccharide is a combination of several monosaccharide molecules. Common important polysaccharide are starch, glycogen and cellulose. The substance of starch is a source of calories is very important, because most of the carbohydrates in foods is found in forms the substance of starch. Glycogen is the body's carbohydrate reserves stored in the liver and muscles. Therefore there is a lot of glycogen in foodstuffs originating from the animal form of meat. While cellulose is part of the plant that can not be digested by the human digestive organs. But cellulose has other benefits for the body.

Some of the cellulose in the body's functions are:
(a) Stimulate the digestive equipment to get enough sap ingested.
(b) Establish the volume of food that provide satiety.
(c) Helping to compact stool (the rest of the nutrients can not be absorbed by the intestinal wall).

4) Fiber
A portion of carbohydrates that are not less important is sellulose, which is often also called fiber. Fibers found in many vegetables, especially in the leaves and fruit. The older fruits and vegetables contain more fiber. The nature of soluble fiber is difficult and can not be digested by the body. Fiber is not useful for growth, but beneficial to the body. Fiber functions in particular are:
a) Maintain a healthy body (draw water from the blood vessels so that faeces become soft, and encourage the efficient expenditure through the intestines).
b) Fiber also may reduce the absorption of fat so that blood cholesterol levels down and the risk of coronary heart disease small.
c) Fiber helps you lose weight. Source of fiber is skinned grains and meat, fruits and vegetables. Adults should consume 25 grams of fiber / hr.

FUNCTION OF CARBOHYDRATES FOR BODY
In the human body functions as carbohydrates:

1) Generate energy
Carbohydrates are energy-producing nutrients are major. Energy is the ability to do work. Carbohydrates in the body shape of monosaccharides, released by the liver into the body cells. With the absence of oxygen is oxidized monosaccharides and carried by the blood from the heart to all parts of the body. Results of oxidation is the heat or calories. The heat that followed changed by the body into energy / energy to move. The more muscle that is moved, the more carbohydrates are needed.

2) Backup power for the body
The amount of carbohydrate in the food we eat is not always commensurate with the required amount of carbohydrates. If the activity and carbohydrate intake slightly more, then will happen excess carbohydrates. Excess carbohydrates are not thrown away by the body, but can be saved. This excess can be used if the body requires. Therefore, if a person consumes less carbohydrate as activity increases, the body needs carbohydrates can be met from reserves. But this is only temporary. If you take a long time, there will be a nutritional deficiency which affects the emergence of certain diseases. Lack of carbohydrates in a long time to force the body to take up energy from fat and protein. If this continues without any efforts to prevent eating protein and fat reserves will be less and less. This can endanger human health. But if there is accumulation of reserve carbohydrates, also not be tolerated. Excess carbohydrates are stored in the form of fat under the skin tissue. If this is allowed may result in excess weight causing obesity or obesity.

3) Provide satiety
One of the advantages of carbohydrates is a large volume. This is caused by the cellulose content in food. Large volume of food that can be provide satiety.

CARBOHYDRATES REQUIREMENTS FOR BODY
The need for carbohydrates in each individual is not the same. For working adults who are not too heavy, your body needs will average between 8 to 10 grams carbohydrate for each kilogram body weight per day.

CARBOHYDRATES IN FOOD PRODUCTS
Carbohydrate present in many plant foods, in the form of simple sugars, hexose, pentose, and carbohydrates with a molecular weight complexes such as starch, pectin, cellulose, and lignin. In general, fruits contain monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose. Disaccharides such as cane sugar (sucrose or sakarosa) contained in many cane; in milk is lactose or milk sugar. Some groups such as dextrins oligoskarida found in starch, bread, syrup, and beer. While various polysaccharides such as starch found in many fruits. The main source of carbohydrates in foods are cereals and tubers. As the presence of starch content of different cereals in several groups. In livestock, especially meat, carbohydrates are in the form of glycogen stored in muscle tissue and the liver. Carbohydrates are found in poultry meat consists of glycogen. Glycogen is found in tissue, especially the liver, so having a solution quickly into glucose after lernak cut. In the red meat is a small amount of sugar (D-glucose, D-fructose, and D-ribose) which terekstraksi into the meat broth. In the carbohydrate present in milk form of lactose; cow's milk contain about 5% lactose, but the dry skim milk contained more than 50% lactose.

Packaging Classification

According Syarief et al (1989), the packaging can be classified based on: frequency of use, the structure of packaging systems, packaging material stiffness properties, the nature of environmental protection and readiness levels used.
Based on the frequency of usage, then the packaging is classified into three, namely:

1. Disposable packaging, is a direct packaging discarded after use. Example: banana leaves, hibiscus leaves, to wrap tempe, teak leaves for wrapping fresh meat, plastic bags for ice.
2. Packaging that can be used several times (multi-trip), such as ketchup bottles, beer bottles, bottles of bottled tea, egg boxes, crates, etc.
3. Packaging is not disposed of or reused by the consumer (semi disposal). Containers or product packaging are not returned to the manufacturer but is used for container by the consumer something or thrown away. Example: canned milk powder and some types of bottles that appeal to consumers.
   

Based on the structure of the packing system, the packaging materials can be grouped into three, namely:

1. Primary packaging, the packaging materials used for packaging food products directly, such as tempeh wrap, bottles or beverage cans, bags of chips, etc.
2. Secondary packaging, the packaging serves to protect the product was packaged using primary packaging. This packaging will help to facilitate the transportation and storage activities. Example: cardboard for packaging beverages in cans / bottles / cardboard, cans, etc. to pack candy.
3. Tertiary packaging, the packaging used to package the product is packaged in primary and secondary packaging. This packaging allows the transport activities, especially for long distances. Example: crates.
   

Based on the rigidity of packing material, the packaging materials can be grouped into three, namely:

1. Flexible packaging, this type of material or formed flexible as you wish, for example plastic, paper, aluminum foil.
2. Rigid packaging, this packaging can not be bent, bend or can not be bent, for example packaging materials of glass, wood and metal.
3. Semi-rigid packaging or semi-flexible, plastic bottle samples.
   

Based on the nature of the protection of packaging, the packaging materials can be grouped into three, namely:

1. Hermetic packaging (packaging bear steam and gas), is a perfect container can not be bypassed by the air and water vapor. During the packaging is still in hermetic, the packaging can not be penetrated by bacteria, molds and dust. However if the closure process is not perfect or wrong will no longer result in hermetic containers. In other words, bacteria, mold or dust can enter the packaging, as a result of packaged food products to be easily damaged. Provide hermetic packaging that is not enameled can provide odor on packaged products. Example hermetic packaging: cans and glass bottles.
2. Light resistant packaging, the container is not transparent or opaque. This packaging is suitable for packaging many products that contain fat and high vitamin and Fermented foods. Food products containing high fat and vitamin when exposed to direct light will quickly oxidize quickly so that the product will decrease the quality. Besides, light can activate chemical reactions and enzimatyc reaction. Example: packaging of paper, cardboard, bottles that are not translucent, opaque plastic or aluminum foil.
3. High temperature resistant packaging. This type of packaging used to package products that require heating process, pasteurization or sterilization.
   

Based on the readiness level of use, the packaging materials are divided into two, namely ready-made container and the container is ready assembled.

Function and Role of Packaging

The most basic function of packaging is to contain and protect products from damages, so the more easily stored, transported and marketed. General function in food packaging are:

1. Contain the product during distribution from producers to consument, so that the product is not scattered, especially for liquid, paste or granules.
2. Protect and preserve the product, such as protection from ultraviolet light, heat, humidity, oxygen, collisions, contamination from dirt and microbes that can damage and reduce the quality of the product.
3. As the identity of the product, in this package can be used as a means of communication and information to consumers through a label located on the packaging.
4. Improve efficiency, for example: easy calculation (one pack contains 10, 1 dozen, 1 gross and so on), facilitate shipping and storage. This is important in world trade.
5. Protecting the bad influence of the product in it, for example, if the product is packaged in the form of strong-smelling products, or hazardous products such as hard water, toxic gases and products that can transmit color, then the product packaging to protect products around.
6. Expanding the use and marketing of products, such as ketchup and syrup sales which had been packed in glass bottles, but now developed by using plastic bottles.
7. Add interest prospective buyers.
8. As a means of information and advertising.
9. Provide comfort for consumers.
   

Functions 6, 7 and 8 is an additional function of the packaging, but with the increasing competition in the food industry, additional functionality will find this more precisely, so that the package should look really attractive to prospective buyers. Several ways to improve the appearance of the package:

• The packaging is made with several colors and shiny so interesting and impressive luxury. The packaging is made in such a way that gives the impression of quality packaging products and expensive.
• Packaging design in such a way that made it easier for consumers.
• Container engineering design always follow the latest techniques so that the product is packaged impressed follow the latest developments.
  

In addition to the functions above, the package also has an important role in the food industry, namely:
a. as the identity of the product.
b. media campaign.
c. media outreach, such as providing information about the instructions how to use and benefit products in it.
d. for government can be used as the packaging of consumer protection efforts
e. for the consumer packaging can be used as a source of information about the content / products, as the basis for the decision to buy the product or not.

Packaging also has several weaknesses, such as:
a. Packaging bias abused by producers because it is used to cover the lack of quality or product damage, propagating disproportionately products or misleading information that lead to fraud or forgery. So often misused by the manufacturer.
b. Food packaging will increase production costs.

History of Packaging and Canning Process

History of Packaging
General understanding of the package is an object that is used for containers or place and may provide protection in accordance with its objectives. The existence of packaging can help prevent / reduce damage, protect the material in it from pollution and physical disturbances such as friction, impact and vibration. In terms of promotion serves as a stimulus package or buyer appeal.

Materials or food products if not packaged can be damaged due to animal attacks (such as a mouse), insects (like cockroaches), and microbes (bacteria, molds and yeasts). Damage can occur from food before harvest, after harvest, during storage, during transportation and distribution as well as for sale. The existence of microorganisms in food will cause the material to be unattractive because the material becomes damaged, there fermentation or covered by fungus. Bacteria that grow in the food will affect the quality, besides that there is a tendency to produce toxic compounds to the consumer (humans), causing pain, can even cause death. The food industry should be producing materials food that has good quality and safe when consumed.

Food packaging played a role in producing products with good quality and safe when consumed. Packaging becomes important because it will facilitate in transportation and storage activities. Understanding of transportation does not always move goods from one place to another. But the move could also mean food from the plates and glasses into our mouths. For example: to drink or glass containers is necessary, or cup. Glass or cup is also one form of packaging. Another example, move the rice from the plate to mouth with a spoon, then spoon serves as packaging materials.

Prior made by humans, nature has also provided for food packaging, such as corn with kelobotnya, fruit with skin, with coconut coir and shell, beans and peas with the skin on. Humans also use packaging to protect the body from the weather disturbance, and to look elegant and attractive.
At first, people use large leaves as packaging materials, such as teak leaves, taro leaves, and banana leaves to wrap meat. Animal skins used to retrieve or bring water, bamboo baskets or similar to store or carrying the harvest.

Canning process history
In the early 19th century, Napoleon wanted food that can be carried by the army in large quantities and secure a well packed. Then he offered france 12,000 to anyone who can find a technology that can bring food in large quantities and safe during the transport or storage. In the year 1810, a French national named Nicolas Appert won the prize. He developed a packaging "Canning process" even though at that time to use the product packaging bottle. In the 19th century, where the people live in America to move from one place to another place to grow crops, they usually use a cart or wagon known. To maintain life before they plant crops that can be harvested, so they bring in canned food. Because canned food can be long lasting and safe to eat, so since it is also the development of canning in the United States grew rapidly.

The above example shows us all, that the food packaging is very closely relation to human survival. Therefore, food must be available anytime and anywhere in the world. To provide food that is available anytime and anywhere, then the packaging becomes an important addition to the technology processing.

Packaging materials are often used to pack agricultural products are wood, jute fibers, plastics, paper and cardboard waves. Agricultural products that can be eaten by humans comes from animal and vegetable sources. Agricultural products that can be consumed in the form of raw or cooked ingredients. Preparation of agricultural products into a form that can be eat involve processing. In the food processing occurs physical and chemical changes in the desired or not desired. Besides, after going through processing, the food was not stable, will undergo change, so it is necessary that proper selection of packaging for it so the food storage period can be increased and nutritional value of food can still be maintained.

Thus the packaging technology and the choice of packaging material is designed so that food can be protected from insect attack and microbes. One also can produce the products that have a relatively old store but also have nutritional value is still relatively good also, increase the added value packaged materials such as materials / products more attractive, higher selling prices.

Nutrient for the body

I. NUTRIENTS AS A FUNCTION
A. Nutrients as a source of energy
As an energy source of nutrients beneficial to move your body and metabolic processes in the body. Nutrient substances belonging to the function gives energy is carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Food which serves as a source of energy such as: rice, corn, Taro is a source of carbohydrate; margarine and butter is a source of fat; fish, meat, eggs, etc. is a source of protein. These three nutrients provide energy for body donation. Nutrients that are producing energy that can used for movement and physical activity and metabolic activity in the body. But the biggest contributor to the energy of the three elements of the nutrients are fat.

B. Nutrients for growth and maintain tissue
These nutrients have sebgai functions forming cells in tissue. If the deficiency is to consume the nutrients and the growth of human development will obstructed. Besides these nutrients also serve to cells to replace damaged body and maintain organ function. Nutrients included in this group are proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. However, nutrients that have dominant source in the growth process is a protein.

C. Nutrients as regulators / regulatory processes in the body
Metabolic processes in the body needs in order arrangements balance occurs. It required a number of nutrients to manage ongoing metabolism in the body. Body needs to balance, to the metabolic processes occurs in the body needs to be set properly. Nutrients that function to regulate metabolic processes in the body are minerals, vitamins, water and protein. But which has the main function is to control sebagia mineral substances and vitamins.

II. Nutrients based on the number
A. Macro Nutrients
Macro nutrients are nutrients required in large number of units of grams. Nutrients including
groups of macro nutrients are carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
B. Micro Nutrients
Micro nutrients are nutrients the body needs small amounts or small but the food there. Nutrients which includes the micro nutrients are minerals and vitamins. Micro nutrients used for some units mg of minerals and vitamins.

Food and Nutrition Planning : Chapter 1

Nutritious food is a basic requirement for all people. Demands in order to meet the need for food
instinctively felt starting in infancy to seniors or the elderly. Without at first taught, every human being will try to fulfill his need for food. Since baby food is supplied by the mother. But after getting becomes older children, they are able to choose their own food they will consume. So also the case with adults, the food consumed, even treated himself and planned how to get it and serve the food.

How much to eat and how to effective to meet the needs should be a concern us in choosing foods and ready meals. Good food is healthy food, safe and hygienic, and easy to get, easy to make, affordable and cheap price. Healthy foods are foods that contains nutrients the body needs.

Safe food is food that is not contain elements that endanger health, and food is not contaminated either by microorganisms and hazardous chemicals. While food hygiene is processed and presented through the process clean. If it meets the food element of this (healthy, safe and hygienic) if taken will benefit body so that optimal health is maintained.

The emergence of a variety of degenerative diseases caused by the pattern of unhealthy eating, experienced after someone consume food in the long term and sustainable. Error in eating patterns and habits unhealthy living can reduce the quality of health.

Nutrition-born late 18th century, which was preceded by series of experiments in the year 1783 -1793 by Antoine Lavoiser known as Mr. Nutrition. Lavoiser through experiments on guinea pigs to find the oxygen functions and digestive processes in the body. He managed to put basic science of nutrition in the form of chemical and biochemical functions of food in body.

Starting from Lavoiser discovery in the field of nutrition, one by one of the experts began to discover the chemical composition of food is good for body health. Chemical Composition in these foods are then known as a nutrition. Nutrients are classified into carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water. Each of these nutrients the body needs in number of different. Differences in nutrient requirements people based on age, sex, physiological condition and level of routine activities they do.

Ordering food can be interpreted as a process planning, processing and presentation of food, which tailored to the needs of the body in order to maintaining the health of a person/individual. Food should be planned in accordance with the physiological condition anyone.

Kelen writing quoting Andrews Guthrie (1983), basic nutrition or basic principles of nutrition is the study of food and nutrients, digestion, metabolism and absorption in the body, and a variety of functions and lack the benefits for the body. So the science of nutrition is the study of nutrients and its relationship to health.

Based on the thoughts above, it can be concluded that the nutritional regulation of food is a step in the planning, processing and presentation of food for individuals in each age group according to the body's need for nutrients, so that every individual can live a healthy life.

As for nutrition planning techniques can be interpreted as the ways or stages in planning a good meal, starting from the menu preparation, processing techniques and serving food according to individual needs in each age group in an effort to fulfill nutrients, so that every individual can live a healthy life.

Vitamin A

Fat-soluble vitamin, occurring either as the preformed vitamin (retinol) found in animal foods or as a precursor (carotenes) found in plant foods. Required for control of growth, cell turnover and fetal development, maintenance of fertility and maintenance of the normal moist condition of epithelial tissues lining the mouth and respiratory and urinary tracts; essential in vision. The main active metabolites in the body are retinaldehyde, all-trans- and 9-cis-retinoic acids. Deficiency leads to slow adaptation to see in dim light (poor dark adaptation), later to night blindness; then drying of the tear ducts (xerophthalmia) and ulceration of the cornea (keratomalacia) resulting in blindness.
The vitamin A content of foods is expressed as retinol equivalents, i.e. retinol plus carotene; 1μg retinol = 6μg β-carotene = 12μg other active carotenoids = 3.33 international units.

Vitamin

There are 13 organic compounds (thus excluding trace minerals) essential to human life in very small amounts. Eleven of these must be supplied in the diet (vitamins A, B1, B2, B6, B12, C, E, K, folic acid, biotin and pantothenic acid); two (niacin and vitamin d) can be made in the body if there is sufficient of the amino acid, tryptophan, and sunlight, respectively.The word may be pronounced either veitamin or vittamin. Vitamins A, D, E and K are grouped together as fat-soluble vitamins, because they are soluble in lipids, but not in water. Vitamin C and the B vitamins (includingantothenic acid, biotin and folic acid) are grouped together as the watersoluble vitamins since they are all soluble in water, but not lipids.

Fat

(1) Chemically, fats (or lipids) are substances that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as ether, chloroform and benzene, and are actual or potential esters of
fatty acids. The term includes triacylglycerols (triglycerides), phospholipids, waxes and steroids.
(2) In more general use the term ‘fats’ refers to the neutral fats, which are esters of fatty acids with glycerol (triacylglycerols or triglycerides).

Protein

The basic units from which proteins are made.Chemically compounds with an amino group (—NH2) and a carboxyl group (—COOH) attached to the same carbon atom. Thirteen of the amino acids involved in proteins can be synthesised in the body, and so are called non-essential or dispensable amino acids, since they do not have to be provided in the diet. They are alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, asparagine, cysteine, cystine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, hydroxyproline, proline, serine and tyrosine. Nine amino acids cannot be synthesised in the body at all and so must be provided in the diet; they are called the essential or indispensable amino acids: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine. Arginine may be essential for infants, since their requirement is greater than their ability to synthesise it.

Two of the non-essential amino acids are made in the body from essential amino acids: cysteine (and cystine) from methionine, and tyrosine from phenylalanine. A number of other amino acids also occur in proteins, including hydroxyproline, hydroxylysine, γ-carboxyglutamate and methylhistidine, but are nutritionally unimportant since they cannot be reutilised for protein synthesis. Other amino acids occur as intermediates in metabolic pathways, but are not required for protein synthesis and are nutritionally unimportant, although they may occur in foods. These include homocysteine, citrulline and ornithine. Some of the non-protein amino acids that occur in plants are toxic.

The amino acids are sometimes classified by the chemical nature of the side chain. Two are acidic: glutamic acid (glutamate) and aspartic acid (aspartate) with a carboxylic acid (—COOH) group in the side chain. Three, lysine, arginine and histidine, have basic groups in the side chain. Three, phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan, have an aromatic group in the side chain. Three, leucine, isoleucine and valine, have a branched chain structure.Two, methionine and cysteine, contain sulphur in the side chain; although cysteine is not an essential amino acid, it can be synthesised only from methionine, and it is conventional to consider the sum of methionine plus cysteine (the sulphur amino acids) in consideration of protein quality.

Foods as Nutrition Source

Foods consumed by human to continue their life in the world. The main of content in foods are carbohydrate, protein and fat. In a simple word, carbohydrate is Sugars and starches, which provide 50–70% of energy intake. Chemically they are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio Cn:H2n:On. The basic carbohydrates are the monosaccharide sugars, of which glucose, fructose and galactose are nutritionally the most important. Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides: nutritionally the important disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, maltose and trehalose. A number of oligosaccharides occur in foods, consisting of 3–5 monosaccharide units; in general these are not digested, and should be considered among the unavailable carbohydrates. Larger polymers of carbohydrates are known as polysaccharides or complex carbohydrates. Nutritionally two classes of polysaccharide can be distinguished:
(a) starches, polymers of glucose, either as a straight chain (amylose) or with a branched
structure (amylopectin);
(b) a variety of other polysaccharides which are collectively known as non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) and are not digested by human digestive enzymes. The carbohydrate reserve in liver and muscles is glycogen, a glucose
polymer with the same branched structure as amylopectin. The metabolic energy yield of carbohydrates is 17 kJ (4 kcal)/g.
More precisely, monosaccharides yield 15.7kJ (3.74kcal), disaccharides 16.6 kJ (3.95 kcal) and starch 17.6 kJ (4.18 kcal)/g.
glycerol is a three-carbon sugar alcohol, and is classified as a carbohydrate; it yields 18.1 kJ (4.32 kcal)/g.